Hamlet by William Shakespeare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Hamlet by William Shakespeare - Essay Example There stand many conflicting theories and ideas on this subject, and this paper aims at analyzing the theme of revenge, in relation to sanity, the impossibility of certainty, the complexity of action and a brief analysis of the play. In the initial Act, Hamlet appears to be in a flawlessly sane state of mind in all the five scenes.   In the second scene, the audience starts to see his character change.  Polonius meets with Ophelia and reminiscences the meeting she previously had with Hamlet.   Ophelia tells her father that indeed Hamlet came to her messy and in a traumatized state of mind, talking of "horror†.   Her father instantly believes that he is actually "Mad for thy love?" (Act 2 Scene 2).   Ophelia answers a question postured by Polonius which she replied that had told Hamlet that Polonius could not communicate or see with him any further.   Her father refers to Hamlet madness once again by announcing that what his daughter uttered, "...   hath made him ( Hamlet) insane." (Act 2 Scene 2). The argument of if Hamlet is mad because of his affection for Ophelia remains often argued, but a more complex and confusing situation is the brawl within the mind of Hamlet. His personal struggle gets shown to the audience in the first scene of the 3rd act. In this first scene, Hamlet recites his eminent "being or not being- that are the query:" (Act 3 Scene 1) speech. Here, the audience truly apprehends that Hamlet is uncertain two means in his life. Being or not being essentially is Hamlet assessment on whether he ought to toil the efforts of living in such harsh world and contest to avenge the murder of his father or commit suicide. Hamlet remains muddled as to whether he have to avenge the death of his father when he, as Sigmund Freud "Oedipus Rex Complex" proposes, wished to kill his father to catch all the attention of his mother. However, in the hind of the mind Hamlet, which keeps him in continuous turmoil, remains his faithfulness to his f amily and furthermore, his father (Shakespeare 67). Hamlet, in scene two of act four, meets with Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, and he appears to be breaking into madness. Hamlet had just murdered Polonius, and his friends were inquiring him on where he located the body of the deceased man. The odd thing about this scene remains that Hamlet appears to play with Guildenstern and Rosencrantz and does not offer them a straight riposte. Hamlet has practically malformed into a different individual and does not seem to be wholly sane (Cantor 44). Since Hamlet doubts the existence of Ghost's revelation, he chooses to put on the behavior of being insane; in the process he actually drives Ophelia mad, initiating her death. Sometimes it also appears that Hamlet's madness appearance become a reality. Next is another condition that cannot be totally elucidated: the condition being Hamlet's delays in revenging the death of his father. The first thing that Hamlet discovers is the death of his fath er in scene five of the scene one, where he trails the ghost. Hamlet eventually hears from this ghost, that he (ghost) is the soul of his father and that he got killed by Claudius. All this took place at the onset of the play and Hamlet waits until the play end to avenge for his father. Then again there stands different perspectives as to if Hamlet waited till the end to actually have revenge. Within the play there remain many insinuations that Hamlet tormented Claudius all the way up till he killed the king and the father of

Types and Significance of Evaluation of Training Program Essay Example for Free

Types and Significance of Evaluation of Training Program Essay Types and significance of evaluation of training program INTRODUCTION Training is vital for any and every organization. With the changing socio-economic and technological relevance of training, the definitions, scope, methods and evaluation of training program have also changed. One of the earlier classic definitions of training is ‘bringing lasting improvement in skills in jobs’. The present day definitions take a multi-dimensional perspective enveloping the needs of individuals, teams, organizations and the society. The steps in the training program development are planning, programme implementation, and programme evaluation and follow-up. The evaluation of any training system helps measure the’ knowledge gap’, what is defined by Riech as ‘the gap between what the trainer teaches and what the trainee learns’. Evaluations help to measure Reich’s gap by determining the value and effectiveness of a learning programme. It uses assessment and validation tools to provide data for the evaluation. Evaluation of training systems, programmes or courses tends to be a demand of a social, institutional or economic nature. A training program is not complete until you have evaluated methods and results. A key to obtaining consistent success with training programs is to have a systematic approach to measurement and evaluation. Training Evaluation Approach Evaluation methods should be determined based on the goals of the training process and should meet the demands of the various stakeholders involved. Every organization has multiple stakeholders and not everyone within the organization has the same information needs. Typically, organizational stakeholder groups include the training department, employees and business units. Their information requirements fall into two categories: whether the competencies have been learned and whether the learning has been applied toward improved performance. DEFINITION * Goldstein (1993) defines evaluation as the â€Å"systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective decisions related to selection, adoption, value and modification of various instructional activities†. * Kirkpatrick (1996) defines evaluation as determination of the effectiveness of a training programme. Evaluation of training as any attempt to obtain information on the effects of a training programme, and to assess the value of the training in the light of that information. * According to Van Dyk et al. (1997), definitions of evaluation have several implications: †¢ Evaluation is an ongoing process. It is not done at the end of course only. †¢ The evaluation process is directed towards a specific goal and objectives. †¢ Evaluation requires the use of accurate and appropriate measuring instruments to collect information for decision making. †¢ Evaluation is a form of quality control. Evaluation is not only concerned with the evaluation of students but with the wider training system as a whole. TYPES OF EVALUATION 1) Formation evaluation Formative evaluation Provides ongoing feedback to the curriculum designers and developers to ensure that what is being created really meets the needs of the intended audience. Formative Evaluation may be defined as any combination of measurements obtained and judgments made before or during the implementation of materials, methods, or programs to control, assure or improve the quality of program performance or delivery. * It answers such questions as, Are the goals and objectives suitable for the intended audience? Are the methods and materials appropriate to the event? Can the event be easily replicated? Formative evaluation furnishes information for program developers and implementers. * It helps determine program planning and implementation activities in terms of (1) target population, (2) program organization, and (3) program location and timing. * It provides short-loop feedback about the quality and implementation of program activities and thus becomes critical to establishing, stabilizing, and upgrading programs. ) Process evaluation Process evaluation provides information about what occurs during training. This includes giving and receiving verbal feedback. Process Evaluation answers the question, What did you do? It focuses on procedures and actions being used to produce results. * It monitors the quality of an event or project by various means. Traditionally, working as an onlooker, the evaluator describes this process and measures the results in oral and written reports. * Process evaluation is the most common type of training evaluation. It takes place during training delivery and at the end of the event. Most of you probably have done it in one form or another. The question we try to answer is What did you do? * Following is a sample list of the kinds of information collected to answer this question: * Demographic data (characteristics about participants and their physical location) * What was taught; how long it took * Whether or not the objectives were met * Who did what to whom, and when 3) Outcome evaluation Outcome evaluation determines whether or not the desired results (e. g. , what participants are doing) of applying new skills were achieved in the short-term. Outcome Evaluation answers the question, What happened to the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of the intended population? * Specific and observable changes in behaviors that lead toward healthier or more productive lifestyles and away from problem-causing actions indicate a successful program. * For example, a successful project is one that is successful in causing a higher percentage of students to use condoms when†¦. This project would produce both outcomes and impacts. Outcome evaluation is a long-term undertaking. * Outcome evaluation answers the question, What did the participants do? * Because outcomes refer to changes in behavior, outcome evaluation data is intended to measure what training participants were able to do at the end of training and what they actually did back on the job or in their community as a result of the training. * 4. Impact evaluation Impact evaluation determines how the results of the training affect the strategic goal e. g. health promotion g oal of reducing the incidence and prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Impact Evaluation takes even longer than outcome evaluation and you may never know for sure that your project helped bring about the change. The focus is on changes that have occurred in key social indicators which are used to gauge the levels of problem occurrence. * Examples of impacts are reduction in the incidence of HIV/AIDS; increase in condom use among students * Impacts occur through an accumulation of outcomes. Impact evaluation is meant to answer the question, How what did was taught in the training affect the problem? (Think back on the problem statements you developed. * Impact evaluation tries to measure whether or not training has affected the initial problem you identified. In other words, an impact evaluation is meant to assess the extent to which what was learned is making a difference at the community level, or targeted groups, or beneficiaries of the intervention Though this type of evaluation usually tak es a long time and costs a lot of money, it is the type that really focuses, for instance, on assessing whether or not there has been a reduction in the incidence and prevalence of specific problems in the community. * The idea here is that the impact of training will hopefully be far reaching and make a difference in peoples lives. Need for Evaluation Since evaluation is an integral part of the whole process of training and development the details have to be conceived much before the actual training activity; rather-than its ritualistic tagging at the end of training. The trainer should be fairly clear of: How to evaluate What to evaluate When to evaluate Answers to these questions are dependent on the need for evaluation. Why Should A Training Program Be Evaluated? * To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses. * To assess whether content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning and the use of training content on the job. To identify which trainees benefited most or least from the program. * To gather data to assist in marketing training programs. * To determine the financial benefits and costs of the programs. * To compare the costs and benefits of training versus non-training investments. * To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program. P rinciples of Evaluation Schuman, E. A. describes evaluation as an integral part of an operating system meant to aid trainers/ training managers to plan and adjust their training activities in an attempt to increase the probability of achieving the desired action or goals. In order to integrate training practices with business policy and objectives evaluation has to be based on sound principles such as: 1. Trainer/ Evaluator must be clear about the purpose of evaluation to be able to set the standards and criteria of evaluation. 2. For an objective evaluation, the methodology and criteria of evaluation should be based on observable and as far as possible measurable standards of assessment which have been agreed upon by the evaluators and the users of the training system. 3. Evaluation has to be accepted as a process than an end product of training. 4. As a process, it has to be continuous. The ‘one-spot’ assessment cannot guide trainers for improving subsequent programmes, therefore it has to begin before the actual training activity and end much after the conclusion of visible training activity. 5. The training objectives should be an outcome of overall organizational goals to permit tangible evaluation of training results. 6. Evaluation data should be directive rather than conclusive. It must be comprehensive enough to guide trainers in the collection of information that will enable them to comment on current training effectiveness and to improve subsequent training. . A good evaluation system is tailor-made and should provide specific data about its strength and weakness. Generalizations drawn from one training activity may be in-applicable for training across different levels and to meet different standards. Besides, they should refrain from using single instances for conclusions and generalizations. 8. A good evaluative system should provide sufficien t scope for self- appraisal by the trainer/ evaluator. 9. The Evaluative data should try to balance quantitative and qualitative information. 10. Role of the evaluator needs tone based on sound working relationship with the participants, trainers, senior line managers and policy makers. Normally a researcher or a fresher is attached to the trainer to carry out end of the course evaluation. This evaluator may have the expertise of developing and designing-evaluative tools and techniques but it would be insufficient in promoting utilization of evaluation results. Evaluator’s acceptance by the participants and interpersonal sensitivity and trust for frank sharing of feedback is a must. This would modify their role as one of giving and receiving feedback rather than just receiving feedback. They have to be proactive than argumentative. 11. Effective communication and coordination are essential. Training and evaluation plans should be discussed so that there is commonality of purpose amongst the trainers, the evaluators and those sponsoring the trainees. 12. Reporting system of evaluative data should be simple, clear, adequate and available for interpretation. It requires the, evaluator to be sensitive to the feelings of the guidance, has to be tactful and honest. As far as possible terminology used should be concise and free from jargons. 13. Realistic targets must be set. A sense of urgency no doubt is desirable but deadline that are unrealistically high will result in poor quality. 14. Finally, a trainer who is sincere about training, evaluation would always insist on complete, objective and continuous feedback on the progress and deficiencies of training to be able to maintain the momentum of the training Programme, its evaluation and subsequent improvement. Benefits of Evaluation †¢ Improved quality of training activities Improved ability of the trainers to relate inputs to outputs †¢ Better discrimination of training activities between those that are worthy of support and those that should be dropped †¢ Better integration of training offered and on-the job development †¢ Better co-operation between trainers and line-managers in the development of staff †¢ Evidence of the contribution that training and development are making to the organization. Kirkpatricks Four-Level Training Evaluation Model The four levels of Kirkpatricks evaluation model essentially measure: 1. Reaction of student what they thought and felt about the training 2. Learning the resulting increase in knowledge and/or capability 3. Behavior extent of behavior and capability improvement and implementation/application 4. Results the effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainees performance Level 1 Evaluation Reactions This level measures how participants in a training program react to the training. Every program should at least be evaluated at this level to answer questions regarding the learners perceptions and improve training. This level gains knowledge about whether the participants liked the training and if it was relevant to their work. Negative reactions reduce the possibility of learning. Evaluation tools: †¢ Program evaluation sheets †¢ Face-to-face interviews †¢ Participant comments throughout the training †¢ Ability of the course to maintain interest †¢ Amount and appropriateness of interactive exercises †¢ Ease of navigation in Web-based and computer-based training †¢ Participants perceived value and transferability to the workplace This type of evaluation is inexpensive and easy to administer using interaction with the participants, paper forms and online forms. Level 2 Evaluation Learning Level 2 evaluations are conducted before training (pre-test) and after training (post-test) to assess the amount of learning that has occurred due to a training program. Level 2 evaluations assess the extent learners have advanced in knowledge, skills or attitude. Level 2 evaluation methods range from self-assessment to team assessment to informal to formal assessment. Evaluation tools †¢ Individual pre- and post-training tests for comparisons †¢ Assessment of action based learning such as work-based projects and role-plays †¢ Observations and feedback by peers, managers and instructors. Level 3: Behavior Level 3 involves the extent to which learners implement or transfer what they learned. This level differentiates between knowing the principles and techniques and using them on the job. Potential methodologies include formal testing or informal observation. This level of evaluation takes place post-training when the learners have returned to their jobs and is used to determine whether the skills are being used and how well. It typically involves contact with the learner and someone closely involved with the learner, such as the learners supervisor. Evaluation tools: †¢ Individual pre- and post-training tests or surveys Face-to-face interviews †¢ Observations and feedback from others †¢ Focus groups to gather information and share knowledge. Level 4 Evaluation- Results This evaluation measures the success of the training program in term that executives and managers can understand such as increased production, increased sales, decreased costs, improved quality, reduced f requency of accidents, higher profits or return on investment, positive changes in management style or in general behavior, increase in engagement levels of direct ports and favorable feedback from customers, peers and subordinates. Methods of Evaluation of Training Programs: It is extremely important to assess the result of any training program. The participant must be made aware of the goals and objectives of the training program and on completion of the training program, they should be asked about the impact of the concerned training program. Evaluation of any program is a difficult task and more so of a training program. The first step toward evaluation of a training program is to define the goals and objectives of the training program. These goals and objectives should be stated in such format so that they can be measured statistically. Also both the trainer and the trainees most be well acquainted with their role in the training Program In the evaluation of any training program. The first requirement is to collect valid and reliable data. The required data can be collected by using the fowling techniques. (12) 1. Self assessments answer sheets. 2. Question confronted by the trainees. 3. Assessing the collected information and observation. 4. Final result based on earlier information plus the new data Each method of data collection has its advantages and disadvantages. Which need to taken into Consideration? The merits and demerits of each method are as follows. Merits of Self Assessment: 1. The cost factor is quite low. 2. Data can easily collect. 3. Time consumption of the trainer and trainee is negligible. 4. Outside interference is completely avoided. 5. Effective relationships develop between the trainees. 6. Well designed answer sheet can produce healthy results. Demerits of Self Assessment: 1. Self assessment is basically self evaluation which can be based of biased responses. The assessment must have enough reliability so as to draw right conclusion in regard to individual assessment. . The responses given by the trainees can be based on misrepresentation or misinterpretation of the questions asked. Thus self assessment questions should be small and easy to understand . in addition . no information should be sleeked which will embarrass the trainees. 3. The information provided by the trainees cannot be evaluated in terms of their correctness. All the trainees do not prefer to gi ve the required information lest it may be used against at any point of time. All these problems can be easily solved. Self assessment is basically adhered to by all the training programs. However what is important to consider is to make proper effective use of this technique as the trainees provide valuable information which the trainer can use to formulate training strategy. The second requirement for evaluating a training program is concerned with the evaluation of the training program when part of the training program has been completed. The time factor must be decided before the program is initiated and the evaluation criteria must be determined before the training program begins. The first evaluation will give adequate information to the trainers whither the program moving toward write direction. At the same time trainees will be able to assess the value of the program in terms of its needs and usefulness. It is extremely important to realize whether the trainees have understood the need and importance of the training program. As this stage adequate data should be collected from the trainees to make proper evaluation of the training program. The collect data, interview and questionnaire methods can be most effective. Interviews can be conducted by seeking information face to face, by means of telephone, or by other strategies like group discussions etc. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits. Merits of Interviews: 1. Face to face interviews ensure some response, if any responses need to be clarified. The trainer can do so instantly. Similarly if the trainees want any clarification, the same can do immediately. This helps in ensuring correct information. 2. As far telephone interviews are concerned though there is lack of personnel touch. The trainee does not feel the pressure of the interviewer to give answers that suit the trainer. The trainer can answer all those question that are complex in nature. These answers have far more validity as the responses are without any pressure. Demerits of Interviews: 1. The interview is a lengthy and costly process as it requires trained and skilled personal to get results that are reliable. 2. Another important drawback is the possibility of the trainer being involved in the interview. 3. Data collected through interview methods may be out of date and hence difficult to interpret. A primary survey was done using a detailed questionnaire as a tool. The survey helped in establishing an understanding f all the four levels of evaluation – reaction, learning, changes and results. The survey used the entire population of participants who attended the training programs of the Institution over the selected three years. The institution on an average trained 3000 participants every year from across the country in its 100 training programs per year. The questionnaire had three main parts – I. Personal details to build the profile of the pa rticipants; II. ‘Effectiveness of Program’ was studied with key questions on whether the objectives of rural development were met within the program. The participants were asked to rate the program content and design on the basic inputs of knowledge, skills and attitudes. III. ‘Professional relevance of training’ was evaluated with key questions asking how relevant the program content was for meeting the local needs and whether there was enough practical application which could be used for working or transferring the knowledge to functionaries further down the line. It also probed whether the learning could be shared with other colleagues in the organization and lastly whether the course had helped in the organizational performance. Merits and Demerits of Questionnaire Questionnaires in one form or another do appear in all kinds of research and surveys. Hence it is extremely vital that the questionnaire is framed with utmost care so that it measures the variable inexactly the way it has been designed for. Once the initial design has been properly framed, a pre _ test must be conducted to find out whether the questions mean the same thing to the trainer and the trainee if found inappropriate the questionnaire should be redesigned and a pilot survey should be conducted. If found appropriate. Full survey should be conducted and if found inappropriate the questionnaire should be redesigned again. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire should be properly evaluated before going in for full survey. In regard to collection of data. It may be observed, â€Å"As with any method of data collection it is vital to plan how the data is to be collected. However with this method, since it does not usually involve the design of some sort of formal survey instrument such as questionnaire. It is all too easy to leap straight in without a plan. This can lead to a considerable waste of time and without a plan. This can lead to a considerable waste of time and even worse the wrong data being collected-so the message is plan and design your desk research in the same way as you would any more formal survey. † Database: In the first instance, the database of 9000 participants was cleaned for missing names and incomplete addresses. The questionnaire was then posted to all the participants together with a stamped self-addressed envelope. Three reminders were also posted over a period of three months to the trainees who had not replied. Questionnaires were also posted to e-mail ids wherever available. The replies received were tabulated in the SPSS format and analyzed. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE TRAINING EVALUATION * Lewis and Thorn hill, (1994) state that evaluation results that do not reflect positive changes or positive results may be a function of an incorrect decision to conduct training. This decision may have been taken higher in the organization’s hierarchy. Companies fail to do training evaluations correctly and thus do not obtain valid business or performance results (Sims, 1993). * According to Mann (1996) the question of what to evaluate is crucial to the evaluation strategy. The failure of training programme evaluations can be attributed to inadequate planning or design, lack of objectivity, evaluation errors of one sort or another, improper interpretation of results and inappropriate use of results and lack of sponsorships and lack of budget (Abernathy, 1999;Goldstein, 1993; Sims, 1993). ISSUES OR DILEMMAS IN EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAMS A. Perceptions and attitudes of learners about evaluation. For example, trainees seem to respond best to evaluation when: The instrument or technique is clear, sensible, agreed on (or expected), well-planned, and integrated in the training design; and they understand the purpose of evaluation and see it as part of the training process. B. Is learning measurable, Observable? Can we measure or â€Å"objectify† the important leanings? C. Is training cost effective? Example: Does it increase roductivity, reduce absenteeism, lower turnover? D. Confidentiality and other uses of evaluation Ethical uses? E. Who can really measure adult learning but the learner? F. Systems-level evaluation of programs: The pilot phase The model phase The institutionalization phase FOLLOW UP: A COMPONENT OF EVALUATION A. Evaluation of Training on the Job Behavioral change Results of application B. Help in Practical Applications External services such as coaching consultancy Help by superiors and colleagues C. Further Personal Development On-the-job Further training courses D. Liaison with Former Participants Personal contacts Associations Information and conferences Alumni peer mentor in. Assessing the costs and benefits of training To conduct a thorough evaluation of a training program, it is important to assess the costs and benefits associated with the program. This is difficult to do but may he important for showing top management the value of training for the organization. For example, in one case, the net return of a training program for bank supervisors was calculated to be $148,400 over a 5-years period. Generally, a utility model would be used to estimate the value of training (benefits minus costs). Some of the costs that should be measured for the training program include needs assessment costs, salaries of training designers, purchase of equipment (computers, video, handouts), program development costs, evaluation costs, trainers’ costs (e. g. , salaries, travel, lodging, meals), facilities rental, trainee wages during training, and other trainee costs (e. g. , travel, lodging, meals). It is important to compare the benefits of the training program with its costs. One benefit that should be estimated is the dollar payback associated with the improvement in trainees’ performance after receiving training. Since the results of the experimental design will indicate any differences in behavior between whose trained and those untrained, the HR professional can estimate for that particular group of employees (e. g. managers, engineers) what this difference is worth in terms of the salaries of those employees. Another factor that should be considered when estimating the benefits of training is the duration of the training’s impact-that is, the length of time during which the improved performance will be maintained. While probably no programmes will show benefits forever, those that do incur longer-term improved performance will have greater value to the organization. Conclusion The Evaluation of any training program has certain aims to fulfill. These are concerned with the determination of change in the organizational behavior and the change needed in the organizational structure. Hence evaluation of any training program must inform us whether the training program has been able to deliver the goals and objectives in terms of cost incurred and benefits achieved. The analysis of the information is the concluding part of any evaluation program. The analysis of data should be summarized and then compared with the data of other training programs similar nature. On the basis of these comparisons, problems and strength should be identified which would help the trainer in his future training programs.

The Most Important Thing To ME :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The very first practice together was the most intimidating experience I have ever had. A group of freshman, including myself, were waiting in the Chorus room and then it was time. We walked into the double doors and the whole West Haven High School band was standing up and clapping. I thought to myself, â€Å"Why are they clapping?† After everyone was seated, our director, Mr. Crabtree said, â€Å"This is your family for the next four years.† It wasn’t until my senior year in high school that I found out how much that really meant.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I’ve been in band for seven years now and I’ve enjoyed every minute of it. The band director now, Ms. Marcella, says, â€Å"This is YOUR band, get involved!† because there is just so many things to get involved with. I thought that band just during school was exciting, but there was so much more to that. There is Band Council, Ensembles, Pep Band, Jazz Band, Leadership Positions, local performances, and much more I had missed out on during my freshman and sophomore year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In my junior year I joined Band Council, Clarinet Ensemble, and ran for Field Leader and Office Assistant for the Leadership Team. I did not receive the position of Field Leader, but did receive the position of Office Assistant. I was very grateful for this position because in order to try out for this position, I had to attend 5 meetings, write an essay on why I wanted these positions, and make a 3 minute marching performance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Office Assistant means that I have responsibility to ensure all music in use is fully stocked at all times, fill music orders 24 hours of submission, spend at least one day a week after school or during a free period working in the Band Library, assist Section Leaders in handing out music, work to keep the rooms clean and keep rehearsals productive, and in my opinion, the most important responsibility, is to set an example for the Band to follow. There are 200 members in the band and once someone sees someone joking around and not follow the rules, others will follow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most important thing to me is band.

Management and Supply Flow Project: VWoA Case

Matulovic, the new CIO, has two primary concerns at VWoA: defining governance and establishing development process directives. However, Matulovic is in a difficult situation; he faces inadequate funding, new business architecture and increasing pressure from his peers. His circumstances are predictable given the history of IT consideration, by VWoA, as a source of overhead and the highly unpredictable U.S. market for Volkswagen Group. Matulovic’s biggest hurdle is in regards to the capped funding that has been determined by the parent company (Volkswagen Audi Group). VWAG allotted VWoA only $60 million, out of the requested $210 million, for IT projects.Given the scope of VWoA initiatives, the amount is far from adequate. However, at the time, there were no additional funds available. The procedure for deciding which projects will receive funding is streamlined by a new prioritization process. This process for managing IT priorities is part of a new business architecture desig ned to align organizational activity with corporate goals and strategy. During the first few years of any new policy or procedure there are bound to be unforeseen complications. The largest glitch was how the new process did not account for â€Å"behind the curtain† programs such as the intercontinental Supply Flow Project.The Supply Flow Project should absolutely receive funding. The cost should not come entirely from VWoA, but allocated amongst the global Volkswagen group of companies. This project is critical to Volkswagen’s global supply chain management and their goals. Successful global integration not only promises company wide savings, but plays an underlying role in customer satisfaction and loyalty, the number one corporate goal. This Supply Flow Project is already underway and needs additional funding for a timely completion. The new funding prioritization process overlooked such programs as this, primarily because the benefits achieved were at the global le vel. Because of the widespread benefits, all global constituents should contribute to the project’s financing.Matulovic, along with the supply flow group in Germany, should combine forces and present their case to VWAG for separate and additional funding for the Supply Flow Project. Due to situations like the Supply Flow Project’s lacking â€Å"qualifications† to receive adequate funding, opponents claim the new system is â€Å"too theoretical† and may not be conducive to VWoA operations.True or not, this cannot be properly determined in the first year of the prioritization process implementation. Furthermore, with a capped spending amount, there are bound to be a few disgruntled individuals whose project did not receive the proper funding. These discontented members of the Executive Leadership Team may not agree, but must realize it is a part of doing business. Furthermore, it is a way of doing business that they all previously agreed to. Matulovic shoul d proceed as formerly agreed, with the business architecture output â€Å"blueprint† which plays a vital role in formalizing governance and prioritization processes.1. Who controls the budgets from which IT projects are funded at Volkswagen of America? The budgets for IT projects were controlled through a process that involves several organizational entities that establish priorities. There were four specific teams that were involved in this process: the ELT (Executive Leadership Team), the ITSC (IT Steering Committee), the PMO (Project Management Office), and the DBC (Digital Business Council.)The ELT was responsible for executing the NRG (Next Round of Growth) strategy in which the IT governance is a part. The ITSC consisted of business and IT managers and was responsible for guiding and approving the process of IT project selection and prioritization. The PMO administered the project proposal and approval process. The DBC was responsible for the project filtering process w hich decided which projects were most in line with the companies business strategy.2. What is your assessment of the new process for managing priorities at Volkswagen of America? Are the criticisms justified? Is it an improvement over the old process? The new IT priority management process was driven by the new IT budget constraint given to VWoA by the parent company VWAG. If the new budgetary constraint was not initiated, it is likely that elements of the former less organized and less centralized method would be maintained.In the end, this may benefit the individual business units, but be detrimental to the business as a whole. In creating the new process, Matulovic enabled the business unit managers to work together to make the  decisions that would effect their departments using the overall company strategy as the driving element. In doing this, he succeeded in involving all of the managers that would be affected by the prioritization system while maintaining the executive lea dership team’s strategic goals. This new system was a substantial improvement over the former system.3. On page 8 we see that $16 million of the $60 budget is for SIB projects, under the spending direction of Matulovic; on page 1 we see that some people consider this unfair – is it? Should budget be â€Å"set aside† for IT projects? Why? The budget allocated for the SIB (Stay in Business) projects (business continuity and legal) should receive the highest priority.As denoted by the name, if any of these projects are incomplete or fail, the risk to the business is substantial compared to business unit priorities. However, the amount budgeted may be a point that could be questioned. Instead of predetermining the amount required, he should have submitted the SIB to the same process as all of the other projects which would have reduced or eliminated the business unit manager’s perception that Matulovic was trying to control company strategy.4. How should Matu lovic respond to his fellow executives who are calling to ask him for special treatment outside the new priority management system? What should Matulovic do about the unfunded Supply Flow project? Matulovic created a well organized system that focused on company goals. His fellow executives were involved in the IT priority decision making and the company expectation is that business unit managers also support company goals.If they think that these goals in relation to their requests does not make sense, then they had the opportunity in this process to voice their concerns to the one of the process teams (the ELT,ITSC,PMO, and/or the DBC), not to Matulovic himself. Because the Supply Flow project is tied into global strategy, Matulovic should propose that the funding for this project come from VWAG.5. In general, what characteristics should a process for deciding about funding of IT projects have? General characteristics that an IT funding process should have: – Involve all of those who will be affected by the funding decisions in the process. – Align IT funding priorities with company strategy.– Enable communication between business units depending on the funding and between those units and executive management.

Plan for the Development of Future Situations Requiring Leadership Essay

This assignment is to development a strategic leadership development plan. There includes to report the CEO regarding the review the strategic management and leadership of the organization. In current situation, Myanmar is in the transition period in both political and economic surface. The treaty of ASEAN free trade area which will start impacting Myanmar from 2015 is a challenge for Myanmar SMEs. As usual consequences of change, while some will benefits from it, some will face setbacks. As the current organization is one of the SMEs in Myanmar, change management which is adaptable for the situation of Myanmar has to be made. Moreover the organization has to prepare for the changes and for adapting corporate and up to date management system. Organization Profile KKK is a manufacturer of authentic Myanmar traditional foods including various kinds of pre-packed ready-made ingredients for traditional curry. Their products are positioned at the high end of the market in terms of both quality and price. Head office of KKK is situated in 78th Street, Mandalay. Manufacturing Plant is situated in Chan Aye Tar Zen Industrial zone. The Plant is operating with about 400 employees from top to bottom line operation. KKK has been in business now for five years and has grown in popularity. What was once a business targeting solely the Myanmar traditional Food community has grown into a business that has far broader appeal. KKK has several objectives that they will achieve to maximize share of local market in pre-packed food industry within the next three years. The first is an increase in sales reaching five thousand Lakhs by  Yearly from local market. KKK also would like to achieve gross margins to be above 55%. KKK also hopes to have 20 different outlets that will distribute their product. Yangon outlet is the first step of these objectives lastly the organization is to become known as the premier authentic Myanmar traditional food producer internationally with an ever-expanding geographic distribution area. Task-1 1.1Explaining the link between strategic management and leadership Strategic managementStrategic Management is all about identification and description of the strategies that managers can carry so as to achieve better performance and a competitive advantage for their organization. An organization is said to have competitive advantage if its profitability is higher than the average profitability for all companies in its industry.| | Strategic management is a continuous process that evaluates and controls the business and the industries in which an organization is involved; evaluates  its competitors and sets goals and strategies to meet all existing and potential competitors; and then reevaluates strategies on a regular basis to determine how it has been implemented and whether it was successful or does it needs replacement. (www.managementstudyguide.com, â€Å"Strategic management†) Leadership The ability of a company’s management to make sound decisions and inspire others to perform well. Effective leaders are able to set and achieve challenging goals, to take swift and decisive action even in difficult situations, to outperform their competition, to take calculated risks and to persevere in the face of failure. Strong communication skills, self-confidence, the ability to manage others and a willingness to embrace change also characterize good leadership. ( www.investopedia.com, â€Å"terms leadership†) A simple definition of leadership is that leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal.( www.sbinfocanada.about.com,â€Å"leadership†) The link between strategic management and leadership Strategic decisions are crucial for the growth and development of any organizastion and vary according to different management and different leadership styles. The change is the function of leadership and strategic decisions means decisions leading to substantial changes in management processes. Hence, Strategic Management and Leadership are closely related or in other words, inseparable. In fact, the terms leadership and strategic management are interchangeable because a leader performs key function like initiating, planning, supporting, controlling, evaluating, etc. Their other responsibilities include building, developing maintaining a team and achieving a common goal by keeping the individual member of the team motivated. As strategic leaders, top level managers must guide the firm in a ways that result in formation of strategic intent and strategic mission. This guidance may lead to goals that stretch everyone in the organization to improve their performance.†Griffin,R.W.1 999 Strategic management is a process of coordinating technological, financial, material and human resources of an organization for enabling it and its stakeholders in achieving stipulated target efficiently and effectively. Strategic  management is a wide term in comparison to leadership as far as scopes are concerned because leadership is mainly limited to organizing, directing and supporting individuals or the human resource in order to achieve the stipulated goal whereas strategic management refers to all resources within an organization. Strategic leadership plays key role in responding to the challenges which businesses have to face due to rapid changes in technology, growing competition and globalization. (www.mbadissertations.blogspot.com, â€Å"link between strategic management†) Strategic objectives of KKK is to maximize share of local market in pre-packed food industry within the next three years. The first is an increase in sales reaching five thousand Lakhs by Yearly from local market. KKK also would like to achieve gross margins to be above 55%. KKK also hopes to have 20 different outlets that will distribute their product. Yangon outlet is the first step of these objectives lastly the organization is to become known as the premier authentic Myanmar traditional food producer internationally with an ever-expanding geographic distribution area. To achieve the strategic goal of the organization, there are should be ways for leaders attempt to get the objectives. Leaders must do to be strategic management. First of all, analysis upon current and future situation has to be made. In analysing current situation, SWOT analysis, PEST analysis techniques can be used. Current situation of Myanmar is lots of challenges. But very near in future, due to the AFTA of ASEAN business from all over the world enter Myanmar and SME’s in Myanmar have to deal with business form ASEAN countries. Our business, traditional food manufacturing and distribution industry has already got more competitive advantage than other industries because the business is based upon traditional food. Leaders of â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing company has to analyze the strength, weakness, opportunities, and threats for the current and situation of Myanmar and foreign market and have to analyze political, economic, social and technological analysis along with the analysis of the internal and external environment of the organization to meet the strategic objectives. In making analysis the current system and infrastructure of â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing has to be considered. More employees need to be trained and more materials have to be required. To open branch offices, communication and cooperation with authorities has to be made. The leaders has to considered whether the raw materials can supply the  demand of the market and transportation condition can be supply the raw in time or not. The leader has to consider the competitors’ strategy in current market. And then decision is the second important matter. In manufacturing, the advanced machine like packing machine, mixing machine and powering machines must be mounted to be more productive. And strategic shop floor management for human resources must be implemented. In Pricing and branding strategies, differentiate with low-cost strategy is suitable for local market. Focus for only traditional strategy is also adequate. Moreover leaders are required to allocate the necessary resources and to design the organization to intended strategy to reality. The leader of â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing should attempt to get the objectives by the following ways in the diagram. Product plan/development Market analysis Distribution Supply chain Infrastructure Manufacturing Raw materials branding Promotion Lead generation Channel sales Direct sales Customer service Warranty support Pricing Customer retention. 1.2 Analyzing the impact of leadership styles and management on strategic decisions There are five main types of leadership styles like Autocratic, Bureaucratic, Charismatic, Democratic, Laissez- faire, etc. (Richard L.H. and Katherine C. B. 2005) 1. Autocratic leadership style: when the leaders use absolute powers in making decisions. This is more prevalent in military and Adolf Hitler is a good example of it. In corporate world, United Aviation Services (Dubai) is known for autocratic leadership. 2. Bureaucratic leadership: when the leader follows the strict theories of leadership defined in books. This style is followed where safety measures are prominent specially working on machines. 3. Charismatic leadership: When the followers are highly inspired by the leader and believe blindly in their leader. Mahatma Gandhi was a Charismatic leader. 4. Democratic leadership: When team members are included in decision making by the leader. This helps in building team spirit and motivating all by increasing trust, skill and confidence. 5. Laissez-faire leadership: When the leader leaves the team members to take decisions n their own and monitors them. This is applicable with efficient and capable teams. ( D.D.Warrick â€Å"Journal of Experiential learning and simulation 1981† ) The culture of â€Å"KKK† Company is manufacturing and distribution. Currently, most of the functions in the firm exercises bureaucratic leadership style. In day to day manufacturing operation, distribution and office work practices Bureaucratic Leadership Style. This style seem to be effective because employees are performing routine tasks over and over. Employees need to understand certain standards or procedures. They are working with dangerous or delicate equipment that requires a definite set of procedures to operate. In manufacturing area, safety or security training is being conducted. Employees are performing tasks that require handling cash. In all day to day operation of â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing, bureaucratic leadership style is currently exercises. The consequence of the current leadership style of â€Å"KKK† is that the organization suffers from slow development to get to the objectives of the organization. In making strategic decisions in manufacturing team the employees felt frustrated and increase turnover rate and absenteeism. In office work and transaction work, the style effects the occurring of the  loop whole. The employees feel boring in working environment and also is suffering from increasing turnover rate. So excising bureaucratic style purely in the whole organizing occur slow development to reach the goal. 1.3 Evaluating how leadership styles can be adapted to different situations Leadership styles adapted to different situations. It is evident from the various scenario of the given that different leadership styles are required to be adapted in different situation. Autocratic Leadership Style This leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past 30 years. It is the most effective style in the following situations: †¢ New, untrained employees who do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures follow †¢ Effective supervision can be provided only through detailed orders and instructions †¢ There are high-volume production needs on a daily basis †¢ There is limited time in which to make a decision For example, Militaries of the countries, and training sections of the firm follow autocratic leadership styles. For the organization of â€Å"KKK† manufacturing, this style should be followed in training section under the HR department so that the new assigned employees can understand the procedures and can apply in their day to day operation exactly. By applying autocratic in training section, mistakes and risks occurred by newly assigned employees can be reduced in mass manufacturing environment. Bureaucratic Leadership Style This style can be effective when: * Employees are performing routine tasks over and over. * Employees need to understand certain standards or procedures. * Employees are working with dangerous or delicate equipment that requires a definite set of procedures to operate. * Safety or security training is being conducted. * Employees are performing tasks that require handling cash. For example, audit firms, and engineering firms, mass production factories are applied the bureaucratic leadership style. For â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing, the bureaucratic leadership style is adapted in production firms so that the routine jobs can be efficient and effective. Operators must follow the production procedure and standards. Employees in production department must handle dangerous equipments like packing, blending, cutting machines and delicate materials like food which must need to be hygiene. Democratic Leadership Style Democratic leadership is suitable for the situation of high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale. For example, arts entrainment firms like broadcasting TV and radio channels, firms based on advanced technology like â€Å"Apple† and â€Å" Microsoft† apply he democratic leadership style. For â€Å"KKK† food manufacturing, democratic style leadership style is adequate in office work and long term strategy. In top level management strategic decision making, the style is appropriate. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style The leadership style is appropriate under the situation of: * Employees are highly skilled, experienced, and educated. * Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. * Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used * Employees are trustworthy and experienced. For example, industries like hotel and hospitality, dealing with experienced vendors, dealing with audit firms and legal consultant firms need to be practiced the leadership style. For our organization, â€Å"KKK†, we must deal with vendors like â€Å"Unilever food solution† for the purpose of training the employees and promoting the manufacturing procedure in line with international food manufacturing procedures. In dealing with outside experts, staff specialists and consultants the laissez-fair leadership style is effective. Task2 2.1reviewing the impact that selected theories of management and leadership have on organizational strategy Leadership Leadership is a process of giving purpose to collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose. (Jacobs and Jaques , 1990, pg 281) Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization. (House et al, 1999, pg 184) Every leaders attempt to achieve organizational objectives through other people ( their subordinates) on their own ways. Famous examples of charismatic or autocratic leaders are Winston Churchill, Bill Clinton, Mother Teresa and Adolph Hitler. They used their authority in highly manner and by structured set of reward and management. A famous example of bureaucratic leader is Paul Tetu Sr. and Paul Tetu Jr. motor bike production in America. The leaders enforce their subordinates to rule. Carlos Ghosn (born 9 March 1954) President and chief executives officer of Renault, France and CEO of Nissaan, Japan, has the style of democratic leadership. He always empowers his employees to take decision. He provided his employee’s challenges to perform better at the same time made them realized that he trusted them and their capabilities. Another famous leader who applied the Laissez-fair style is Mahatma Gandhi, National leader of India. All authority or power given to the people and they determine goals make the decisions, and resolve problems on their own. So, many leaders apply different leadership strategy through their people on their own way according to the situations. There are several theories of management and leadership on organizational strategy like Great Man theories, Trait theories, Behaviorist theory, Situational leadership, Contingency theory, Transactional Theory, transformational theory, etc. Different organizations are influenced by different theories of management and leadership. John Adair’s Action Centred Leadership (Greatman Theory) Source: www.adventuremas.com, Innovations in Management Development Task Leadership actions to achieve the Task include: * Defining the task and keeping it clear * Clarifying fit of the task to the more global vision and mission * Identifying resources and developing options * Establishing priorities, time frames, and specific plans of action * Establishing systems for communication * Implementing plans and responding positively to change * Assessing progress and considering contingencies on an ongoing basis Team Leadership actions to Build and Maintain the Team include: * Involving team members to generate alignment * Soliciting ideas and building on them * Establishing roles * Optimizing the exchange of information * Monitoring the team’s process and dynamics * Resolving conflict * Recognizing team successes Individual Leadership actions to Empower Individuals include: * Encouraging varying viewpoints * Harvesting ideas * Allocating responsibilities to capitalize on individual strengths and develop individuals * Listening * Facilitating and giving feedback * Delegating when it can be effective * Counseling and encouraging individuals (www.adventuremas.com, Innovations in Management Development) Three – Dimensions Theory There are three dimensions to effective leadership, each of which is within the control of the individual leader, and each of which can be developed through appropriate support and guidance. Effective leadership is about developing your ability in each of the three dimensions and then choosing to apply your skills and abilities in a balanced, three-dimensional way. Source: (www.mapleassociates.com, Simon Batty MBA MCMI â€Å"Three-Dimensional Leadership – the balanced approach†) Each dimension is of equal importance, which means that leaders who have development needs in one or more of the dimensions, will display behaviours that indicate an opportunity for improvement. Simply developing an already strong dimension will not work; a strength overplayed can become a weakness. Values The first dimension of leadership is that of values. These are the internal thoughts that influence the way a leader views the world around them. Some values are deeply embedded in our moral framework. For example, they guide us in the difference between right and wrong, good or bad. Developed as we progress through childhood, are increasingly challenging to change or modify, as we grow older. Effectiveness In order to lead people effectively, the individual leader must first be able to self-manage. This means that they must be ‘personally effective’ in performing key tasks. Time management (or rather, effective use of time), is a prime example. Leaders who fail to identify and manage their own priorities are unlikely to help team members do any better. Worse still, they may feel threatened by a team member who is more accomplished in this basic management skill than they are. Influence It is important to note that truly influential leaders are not necessarily those who are seeking the popular vote. Leaders who use their personal charisma, or popularity, to motivate and influence, whilst neglecting to develop their values or effectiveness dimensions, need to beware of the following, ‘How the mighty fall when the popular vote disappears!’ Charm may work for a while, but real credibility and respect are based upon the ability to deliver results in all areas. (www.mapleassociates.com, Simon Batty MBA MCMI â€Å"Three-Dimensional Leadership – the balanced approach†) Transformational Theory Transformational leadership theory is all about leadership that creates positive change in the followers whereby they take care of each other’s interests and act in the interests of the group as a whole. James MacGregor Burns first brought the concept of transformational leadership to prominence in his extensive research into leadership. The four components of the transformational leadership style are: (1) Charisma or idealized influence – the degree to which the leader behaves in admirable ways and displays convictions and takes stands that cause followers to identify with the leader who has a clear set of values and acts as a role model for the followers. (2) Inspirational motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appeals to and inspires the followers with optimism about future goals, and offers meaning for the current tasks in hand. (3) Intellectual stimulation – the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, stimulates and encourages creativity in the followers – by providing a framework for followers to see how they connect to the leader, the organization, each other, and the goal] they can creatively overcome any obstacles in the way of the mission. (4) Personal and individual attention – the degree to which the leader attends to each individual follower’s needs and acts as a mentor or coach and gives respect to and appreciation of the individual’s contribution to the team. This fulfills and enhances each individual team members’ need for self-fulfillment, and self-worth – and in so doing inspires followers to further achievement and growth. (www.ezinearticles.com, Stephen Warrilow â€Å"Transformational Leadership Theory – The 4 Key Components in Leading Change & Managing Change†) Source: Model of Transformational Leadership, www.managementstudyguide.com For the selected organization â€Å"KKK† transformational leadership theory, 2.2Creating a leadership strategy that supports organizational direction Transformational theory has much in common. The theory focuses on attempting to explain how leaders can accomplish extraordinary things against the odds, such as turning around a falling company, founding a successful company. The theories also emphasize the importance of leader’s inspiring subordinates’ admiration, dedication, and unquestioned loyalty through articulating a clear and compelling vision. Utilizing the theory can be the positive impact on our organization needs restructuring and reengineering in leadership and management. Transforming to corporate culture must be implemented. If possible mergers, acquisition, joint ventures have to be established. The above three theories, John Adair’s theory, 3D theory and transformational leadership must be adequately mixed and applied in our organization. Through employees, utilizing appropriate leadership style in different sections, individuals engages with each other and is able to create a connection that result in increased motivation and morality in both followers and leaders. Leaders can also initiate, develop, and implement important changes in a confidence, extroversion, and understand the value of the organization. Our changing strategy is to meet the requirement of the time of AFTA (2015) and can get competitive advantage in food manufacturing industry via traditional food. ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) AFTA is a free trade zone in Southeast Asia where member countries include Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and Brunei. The AFTA agreement supports the effort to relax trade barriers amongst member countries in order to achieve direct trade benefits. The purpose of a SWOT analysis of the manufacturing industry is to identify the key factors that affect the success of the industry. The four factors considered a part of a SWOT analysis are: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A SWOT analysis estimates the risks for a particular industry. 1. Strengths * The strengths of the manufacturing industry are that it is relatively stable. Although the demand for manufacturing tends to fluctuate with the ups and downs of the economy, it is characterized by regular periods of recovery following any downturns. Moreover, manufacturing has become highly efficient over the last century, with the ability to maximize both the productivity of the workers and machines to maximize profits. Weaknesses * A weakness of the manufacturing industry is that much of it is built on the production of non-essential goods. This means that a severe downturn in the economy can have a crippling effect on it. Another weakness is that it is a mature industry. This means that there is heavy competition and little room for growth. As a result, the manufacturing industry can be a cash cow for those who are already in it but may be unattractive to new entrants. * Sponsored Links * Software Metrics Measure your IT for a competitive advantage. Learn more. davidconsultinggroup.com/Metrics Opportunities * Opportunities in the manufacturing industry are in the technology and bio-technology areas. These are growing market segments with higher profit margins. Additionally, they are knowledge-dependent market segments that require highly specialized workers, which makes it difficult for low wage countries to compete in this market segment, thereby providing an edge to more industrialized countries. Foreign markets with a growing middle class are providing opportunities for technology and bio-technology manufacturers to increase their profitability through exports. Threats * The largest threats to the manufacturing industry in developed nations are from low wage countries. The low wages of these countries have made it impossible for many businesses in developed nations to compete, requiring them to either close or move overseas to find cheap labor. Increasingly, India is an even bigger threat to the manufacturing industry, with its ability to supply highly educated workers at low wages to fill roles in the high-tech manufacturing market segment. Read more: SWOT Analysis of Manufacturing Industry | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_6767951_swot-analysis-manufacturing-industry.html#ixzz2HdkmsvMX 1. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats STRENGTHS †¢ Some expenditure on food is essential for everyone and is considered an established part of the household budget. †¢ Many food products are deemed necessities and are unlikely to be harshly affected by any economic downturn. It is discretionary spending that is usually badly hit in a recession, which is, therefore, more likely to harm sales of ‘luxury’ foods. †¢ The UK has a well-established supply structure, in terms of both its production base — for meat, dairy products, fresh and processed vegetables, bakery products and fish, in particular — and its network of retail outlets — mainly in the form of major multiples. †¢ Following a period of extensive rationalisation and restructuring, the UK food industry can now benefit from more focused businesses and generally more efficient supply chains. †¢ The food-processing sector has also benefited from consolidation, which has created more vertically integrated companies and more economies of scale. †¢ Consumer demands for convenience have served to increase the opportunities for foodretailing, which are no longer confined to the traditional food outlets or to daylight hours. As well as minimising missed opportunities, it also enables the industry to capitalise on impulse purchasing. †¢ In such a mature industry, the competitive pressure on suppliers ensures a high degree of product innovation. WEAKNESSES †¢ Few brands enjoy high levels of consumer loyalty and in certain sectors, such as cereals, bread and yoghurt, it is particularly limited. As a result, product switching and the growth of own labels are harming sales of some brands. †¢ The buying power of the large supermarket chains, and their demand for lower-priced supplies, has put further pressures on food-industry margins —especially on producers operating in commodity sectors, such as milk. (It is possible that future EU legislation will prevent the sale of goods below cost price and will set a†¦ 2.